MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY

 

NOTA NEW MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY

1.     WHAT IS MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY

• Psychology is the science of behaviour and mental processes.

• It is a science because the people are observed and studied carefully in controlled environments.

• The precise and correct scientific methods are adopted and adhered to. Study of psychology is systematic. Data is collected through experiments and observations and measurements are carefully done.

• Behaviour is a person’s observable and manifest actions.

• Mental processes are a person’s introspections, thoughts, emotions, feelings and motives which can be easily observed or detected.

• Media psychology is the application of psychological theory and research to media and technology—it could be analyzing use, development, impact, or predicting trends.

• Media psychology is not about the tools. It is about understanding people—what they feel, think, need, want and do—human interaction with media and technology.

• Media psychology, therefore, includes the use, creation, and distribution or sharing of media, as well as the impact these actions, messaging, content and data, have on individuals, society, and culture.

2.     WHY DO WE NEED IT

• Media technologies are everywhere

• People of all ages use media technologies a lot

• Technology is not going away

• To have better strategic decision about content, design, development and distribution

• We all worry if this is good or bad or somewhere in-between

3.     MASS MEDIA

-        Mass media is a media (medium) is anything that carries information from one source to another

-        FUNCTION OF MEDIA (MASS)

• Harold Lasswell (1948) said media serve 3 functions (broadly) in society

• Surveillance – which gives those consuming media insight into what is transpiring around them. (What we hear and see on media)

• Correlation- refers to the media’s interpretation and explanation of specific news events. (How we interpret the content of media)

• Transmission- where the media conveys social ideas and cultural heritage to subsequent generations of media consumers. (The impact of media to society).

-        CHARACTERISTICS OF MASS

• One message, many receivers

• Message produced by an organization

• Messages delivered at regular intervals

• Public communication

-        MAGIC BULLET THEORY

• Theory claimed that the mass media acts as symbolic bullets

• Striking every eye and every ear of everyone

• Having direct, immediate, powerful, and uniform effects on everyone

• Assumed that in Mass Society, people:

• …are socially isolated

• …have uniform instincts

• …are not influenced by social ties

• So them must:

• …hear the same messages

• …interpret those messages similarly

• …respond to those messages similarly

4.     RESEARCH METHOD IN MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY

a.     EXPERIMENTAL

Media effects research used almost wholly on experimental methods for several years. Experiments are done both in the laboratories as well as in the field. Experiments are used to test hypotheses about cause and effect. The researcher controls the conditions in the laboratory and takes measurements. The causal relationship between variables is then found out. Participants are divided into two groups: control group and experimental group. In the experimental group the hypothesized cause is present whereas in control group the hypothesized cause is absent.

b.     SURVEY

are done using a questionnaire which contains some basic questions regarding demographic (age, sex, income levels, ethnicity, numbers of hours spent watching TV or surfing the Internet in a day, number of magazines bought etc.) and psychographics (open-ended questions about media preferences and experiences).

c.      INTERVIEWING AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

This is a dialectic method of data collection. It answers questions like what and why. Qualitative data collection refers to meanings, characteristics, metaphors and symbols of concepts. It is subjective in nature. It is used to develop theory. This type of research is exploratory in nature. The techniques used in qualitative method are in-depth interviews and focus groups. Interviews are done on one-on-one basis to gather information on an individual’s media choices, uses and experiences.

d.     ETHNOGRAPHY AND OBSERVATION

involves more than conducting a few interviews or questionnaires, it may mean that the researcher actually sets up camp in a household to record as much observational data

as possible about the activities of the household and the role of media in its everyday life.

e.      ANALYSIS OF MEDIA TEXTS (CONTENT ANALYSIS)

most frequently used in media research in order to investigate the nature of media

representations. Typically, a researcher constructs a schedule based on the possible types of representation (e.g., ethnic groups on British television) and the different texts to be covered.

5.     ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

• Ethics are a set of moral values which guide people about the right and the wrong. The American Psychological Association (APA) requires all its members to adhere to its code of ethics, which applies to the treatment of both humans and animals.

• The most important consideration is that the human and animal subject under study should not face any harm or discomfort during the research process.

-        Human as subjects

1) Before beginning any research, the researchers must inform clearly to subjects

2) Subjects should give an informed consent to researchers. It means that the subjects should know about the research and that they are not under any coercion or force to participate in it.

3) They must voluntarily agree to be a part of the research.

• Researchers are ethically obliged to not cause any kind of physical or mental distress to their subjects. Subjects should be informed prior to the experiment about their role in the study. Subjects must be allowed to withdraw from the experiment at any point of time or decide not to participate in the research any more. The researcher must respect an honour the wishes of the participants. The researcher should also protect the privacy and identity of the subjects. If they want anonymity, then the researcher must make sure the subjects remain anonymous.

• Psychologists have ethical obligations to treat animal subjects humanely and to do

research on animals only when the benefits of the research are clear.

• Animals should have the same rights as humans, lawmakers and society should enact

safeguards to protect the safety and welfare of animals

• Researchers should not put the well-being of humans above the well-being of animals

 

CHAPTER 2: THE SELF: WHO AM I?

1.     THE THREE COMPONENTS OF SELF-CONCEPT

a.      Self-image

b.     Ideal self

c.      Self-esteem

2.     THE BIG PICTURE

a.      Sources of self-knowledge

b.     Consequences of self-knowledge

3.     HOW DO WE KNOW WHO WE ARE?

• Self-knowledge in psychology is “actual genuine information one possesses about oneself” (Morin & Racy, 2021, p. 373). This includes information about our emotional state, personality traits, relationships, behavioral patterns, opinions, beliefs, values, needs, goals, preferences, and social identity (Morin & Racy, 2021).

• Self-knowledge results from self-reflective and social processes (Morin & Racy, 2021).

a.      Introspection (to privately think about “who we are”

• Many pop psychology authors tell us that the road to self-knowledge runs through introspection.

• However, introspection is misleading because we often do not have access to the reasons for our actions (they are nonconscious).

• We often aren’t very good at predicting how we will feel in the future following a positive or negative event.

• Private contemplation of “who we are” in an effort to gain self-knowledge

b.     Taking the “observer” perspective

• One way self-reflection can be helpful is to take an observer’s standpoint on our behavior.

• The self for the other’s standpoint

• People can also attempt to learn about themselves by taking an “observer” perspective on their own past.

• Actors and observers differ in their focus of attention. Actors tend to make more situational attributions for their behavior; while observers tend to make more dispositional attributions.

• Thus, if we take an observer’s perspective, we will be more likely to characterize our actions in terms of our own traits.

◦ Evidence suggests that having access to our intentions, which observers do not have, is one reason why we are sometimes inaccurate about ourselves

◦ Oddly enough, people tend to be less accurate in predicting their own behaviors than in predicting the behavior of others

4.     WHO I AM?

a.      SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY

• Suggests that we compare ourselves to others because there is no other objective yardstick to evaluate ourselves

• Downward comparison - involve comparing ourselves to someone who is in a worse state than us, thereby raising our self-esteem (e.g., finding someone with a worse test grade than ours).

• Upward comparison -involve comparing ourselves to someone who is in a better state than us, thereby decreasing self-esteem (e.g., finding someone who is a better athlete that we are).

• Self-evaluation maintenance model states that in order to maintain a positive view of the self, we distance from others who perform better and move closer to those who perform worse

b.     DEPENDS ON THE SOCIAL CONTEXT

• People see themselves differently depending on which relationships and which contexts are salient

• Salience is when something stands out from its background or is the focus of attention

• Personal-versus-social identity continuum: Two distinct ways that we can categorize ourselves. At the personal level, we can be thought of as a unique individual, whereas at the social identity level, we think of the self as a member of a group

c.      DEPENDS ON OTHERS’ TREATMENT

• How people are treated by others and how they believe they will be treated in the future impacts the ways in which they think about themselves

d.     PAST AND FUTURE SELVES

• How we change over time

• Autobiographical memory is concerned with memory of ourselves in the past and sometimes over the course of life as a whole

• Possible selves are images of how we might be in the future—either a “dreaded” potential to be avoided or “desired” potential that can be strived for

5.     SELF-PRESENTATION

Managing the Self in Different Social Contexts

◦ Presenting ourselves to a constantly observing and potentially ever-changing audience

• Refers to how people attempt to present themselves to control or shape how others (called the audience) view them.

• It involves expressing oneself and behaving in ways that create a desired impression.

◦ As Shakespeare described: “All the world’s a stage and all the men and women merely players”

a.      Self-promotion: presenting our most favorable aspects

b.     Self-verification perspective: present ourselves in ways that induce others to agree with our own self views

c.      Ingratiation: when we try to make others like us by conveying that we are like them

d.     Self-deprecating: put the self-down, not as good as the other

6.     SELF CONTROL

Why it can be difficult to do?

• Self-Control is achieved by refraining from actions we like and instead performing actions

we prefer not to do as a means of achieving a long-term goal

• Examples:

• quitting smoking

• going on a diet

7.     SELF-ESTEEM

Attitudes towards ourselves

• The degree to which the self is perceived positively or negatively

• One’s overall attitude toward the self

• When we achieve important goals, self-esteem goes up.

• Failing to achieve goals can lower self-esteem.

• Can be measured explicitly or implicitly

• Implicit Self-Esteem: feelings about the self of which we are not consciously aware

a.      High self-esteem

• People with high self-esteem:

• Like to meet new people

• Don’t worry about how others will judge them

• Have the courage to express themselves

• Are magnets to positive opportunities

• Have an “ I THINK I CAN” attitude!!!!!

b.     Low self-esteem

• People with low self-esteem:

• Don’t believe in themselves

• See themselves failing before they even begin

• Have a hard time forgiving their mistakes and make themselves pay the price forever

• Believe they can never be as good as they should be or as good as others

• Are dissatisfied with their lives

• Spend most of their time alone

• Complain and criticize

• Worry about everything and do nothing

• Have an “I CAN’T DO IT” attitude

c.      Do women and men differ in their level of self-esteem?

• Research shows a slight, but consistent, trend for differences in self-esteem among men and women.

• Women have lower self-esteem when they reside in countries where women have little social power.

8.     SELF-SERVING BIASES

• The self-serving bias is defined as people's tendency to attribute positive events to their own character but attribute negative events to external factors.

• The above average effect is the tendency to rate self as above the average on any social traits that are positive (e.g., intelligence).

• Positive illusions are beliefs we hold about ourselves that are not entirely accurate

9.     THE SELF AS TARGET OF PREJUDICE

Emotional Consequences: How Well-Being Can suffer

• Emotional responses to a negative outcome depend on the attribution made for it.

• Behavior Consequences: Stereotype Threat

• occurs when people believe that they might be judged in light of a negative stereotype about their group

• In addition, one may fear that their own performance could reinforce a stereotype about their group.

• When people value their ability in a certain domain (e.g., math) but it is one in which their group is stereotyped as performing poorly (e.g., women), stereotype threat may occur.

 

CHAPTER 3: AGGRESION: MEDIA VIOLENCE

1.     DEFINITION

a.      AGGRESSION: Human aggression is any behavior directed toward another individual that is carried out with the proximate (immediate) intent to cause harm. In addition, the perpetrator must believe that the behavior will harm the target, and that the target is motivated to avoid the behavior.

b.     VIOLENCE: Violence is aggression that has extreme harm as its goal (e.g., death). All violence is aggression, but many instances of aggression are not violent. For example, one child pushing another off a tricycle is an act of aggression but is not an act of violence.

2.     WHAT IS MEDIA VIOLENCE?

The depiction or dissemination of violent or other explicit material or images in a manner that is considered harmful or images in a manner that is considered harmful to viewers through media sources such as tv, radio, music, film, literature, comic books and video games

3.     FORMS OF MEDIA VIOLENCE

• Film

• Television

• Comic books

• Music

• Radio

• Video games

Seeing violence (that leads to)	Aggressive thoughts (which create)	Aggressive/ violent behavior
Violent tv	Shoot	Revenge
Violent video games	Gun	Guns
Exposure to handguns	Hurt/ kill	gossip

 

4.     CAUSES OF HUMAN AGGRESION

a.      Biological factors

• Brain chemistry, hormones and genetics

• Medical conditions

• Research found, men are more likely than women to engage in physical aggression.

• While researchers have found that women are less likely to engage in physical aggression, they also suggest that women do use non-physical forms, such as verbal aggression, relational aggression, and social rejection.

b.     Environmental factors

• Traumatic experience

• How you were raised may play a role. People who grow up witnessing more forms of aggression are more likely to believe that such violence and hostility are socially acceptable.

• Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that observation can also play a role in how aggression is learned. Children who watched a video clip where an adult model behaved aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate

those actions when given the opportunity

c.      Physical factors

• Hunger, noise, temperature

• Alcohol abuse, drug use, and pain can also influence aggression

5.     FORMS OF AGGRESION

a.      Physical

b.     Verbal

c.      Mental

d.     Emotional

6.     PURPOSES OF AGGRESION

• To express anger or hostility

• To assert dominance

• To intimidate or threaten

• To achieve a goal

• To express possession

• A response to fear

• A reaction to pain

• To compete with others

7.     TYPES OF AGGRESION

a.     IMPULSIVE

Affective aggression is characterized by strong emotions usually anger. Not planned and often takes places in the heat of the moment

b.     INSTRUMENTAL

Predatory aggression is marked by behaviors that intended to achieve a larger goal. Carefully planned and usually exist as a means to an end

8.     IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF WATCHING VIOLENT MEDIA

a.     IMITATION

The imitative modelling of media effects was studied in a series of experiments by albert bandura in the 1960s, widely known as the “bobo doll” studies due to the use of an inflatable plastic doll that children were observed to strike more frequently after watching an adult perform the same activity on video (bandura et al., 1963).

b.     EXCITATION

An exciting film will speed up heart rate and increase blood pressure and skin conductance; could violent film be an exceptionally exciting stimulus, whose effects carry over to subsequent activity?

“excitation transfer”

excitation transfer takes place when the adrenalin produced by an exciting stimulus carries over to later activity and may be misidentified as a result. thus, in the context of media violence, an exciting film produces an excess of adrenalin production in a viewer; the viewer then gets into an argument on the bus home that descends into physical conflict, unaware that his or her physiological excitation is the residue of the viewing experience rather than adrenalin produced by the argument itself.

c.      DESENSITISATION

• the effect of repeated exposure to violent material over a long period of time.

• media violence poses a threat to public health as much as it leads to an increase in real-world violence and aggression.

• research shows that fictional television and film violence contribute to both a short-term and a long-term increase in aggression and violence in young viewers.

9.     CHARACTERISTICS OF THE USER OF VIOLENT MEDIA

a.     PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS

• trait aggression (the biological tendency for an individual to display aggression)

• risk-taking and sensation-seeking behaviour

• trigger for hidden aggressive tendencies

• extraversion type of personality

b.     MOTIVATIONS FOR VIOLENT MEDIA USE

Why do people watch violent films and television?

1) Curiosity

2) Challenge

c.      CATHARSIS

• By definition, a catharsis is an emotional release.

• This is excitation transfer in reverse—viewers enter the cinema full of pent-up aggression and leave it sated and becalmed.

• Studies saying that adult males were found to watch more violent media during periods of stress.

• In an unusual study observing children’s facial expressions as they watched television, Lagerspetz, Waldroos, and Wendelin (1978) found that although adult aggression and violence were clearly disturbing, the children responded to the violent antics of cartoon characters with expressions of pure joy.

10.  CYBERBULLYING

• Cyberbullying is bullying that takes place over digital devices like cell phones, computers, and tablets.

• Cyberbullying can occur through SMS, Text, and apps, or online in social media, forums, or gaming where people can view, participate in, or share content.

• Cyberbullying includes sending, posting, or sharing negative, harmful, false, or mean content about someone else.

• It can include sharing personal or private information about someone else causing embarrassment or humiliation.

• Some cyberbullying crosses the line into unlawful or criminal behavior.

a.     The most common places where cyberbullying occurs are:

• Social Media, such as Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and Twitter

• SMS (Short Message Service) also known as Text Message sent through devices

• Instant Message (via devices, email provider services, apps, and social media messaging features)

• Email

b.     Cyberbullying has unique concerns in that it can be:

• Persistent – Digital devices offer an ability to immediately and continuously communicate 24 hours a day, so it can be difficult for children experiencing cyberbullying to find relief.

• Permanent – Most information communicated electronically is permanent and public, if not reported and removed. A negative online reputation, including for those who bully, can impact college admissions, employment, and other areas of life.

• Hard to Notice – Because teachers and parents may not overhear or see cyberbullying taking place, it is harder to recognize.

c.      What are the effects of cyberbullying?

• Low self-esteem

• Changes in mood, including depression, anger or shyness

• Changes in personality, including misbehaving in class

• Changes in appearance, including losing weight or dressing differently

• Social withdrawal, both from family and friends

• Signs of self-harm

• Protectiveness over their phone/laptop

• Suffering performance at school

• School refusal or truancy

d.     How to deal with cyberbullying?

• Not to respond

• Document evidence of the cyberbullying

• Seek support

• Contact the police if necessary

11.  PORNOGRAPHY AND EROTICA

a.     DEFINITION OF PORNOGRAPHY

• The depiction of erotic behavior (as in pictures or writing) intended to cause sexual excitement

• Material (such as books or a photograph) that depicts erotic behavior and is

intended to cause sexual excitement

• The depiction of acts in a sensational manner so as to arouse a quick intense

emotional reaction

b.     DEFINITION OF EROTIC

• devoted to, or tending to arouse sexual love or desire

• strongly marked or affected by sexual desire

c.      BRIEF HISTORY OF PORNOGRAPHY

• 16th century – first example of pornographic literature by Italian author and engraver Pietro Aretino

• 17th century – the rise of the printing industry. Writing became widely available

• 18th century – the themes of modern pornography emerged in the writing of the Marquis de Sade

• 20th century – the first sexually explicit films were made

• 1920s – material consists of films focusing on feet and other nongenital parts of the anatomy

• 1968 – the first public screening of a hard core feature film in New York

• 1970s – the pornography industry went into overdrive

• Late 1970s – the invention of video cassette recorder turned pornography into an increasingly profitable industry

- Home pornography

- Debates about the legalisation of pornography

• 1977 – restrictions on pornography in Britain – claim it produce harmful antisocial effects

• 1980s – in US, research provide evidence for a causal relationship between exposure to sexually violent material and aggressive behaviour towards women.

d.     THE EFFECTS OF PORNOGRAPHY

a.     EXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS

- link between pornography and antisocial behaviour

- attitudes toward rape

- desensitization

- males and females reported lower sexual satisfaction with their partner

b.     NONEXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS

- cathartic in nature

- functional alternative to actual sex

- providing sexual information in general

e.      GENDER ISSUES

• Overwhelmingly it is men rather than women who use pornography

• Feminist critics maintain that pornography is just a tool that men have used over the centuries to subordinate women

• Recent developments in the world of Internet pornography look set to further enhance the status of women in the profession. Increasingly, female models are seizing control of their own careers by moving away from the video market and setting up their own websites

f.      EFFECTS AND USES OF CHILD PORNOGRAPHY

• The illegal nature of child pornography has meant that not only is prosecution a possibility for the makers of such material, but possession also brings with it the risk of imprisonment.

• Pedophilia - Pedophilia is an ongoing sexual attraction to pre-pubertal children. It is considered a paraphilia, a condition in which a person's sexual arousal and gratification depend on fantasizing about and engaging in sexual behaviour that is atypical and extreme.

• Pedophiles are more often men and can be attracted to either or both sexes. How well they relate to adults of the same or opposite sex varies.

ASSIGNMENT

1. INDIVIDUAL

1. Real-self versus online self

I now live in two worlds since I am more frequently plugged into digital devices. I want to be healthier, happier, and more like who I really am. In the offline and online worlds,
I aim to present the greatest version of myself. The term "real self" refers to an identity that a person creates in a physical setting, such as in real life. A person's online self is the identity they create for themselves in a digital space like social networks. Real-world identity and online identity are not the same thing. The traits I portray online are different from the traits I portray in the real world. My exterior appearance and the people I choose to share information with define who I am offline. For instance, my friends might be aware of my residence and place of education. Everything I post online represents my online identity. It contains information about me online, such as my email address, birthday, hobbies, and otherthings. As an introvert, I believe social media helps me express myself and gives me confidence. Because I am not interacting with people in person, I can publish whatever I want online and feel less shy.

2. Manage relationships with friends and family

The real self, according to psychology, is what a person genuinely enjoys. It is a
person's way of being, thinking, and acting. There is no way to genuinely know how others see a person, so the true self can be seen by others. I maintain my family's relationship through showing an interest in one another's lives. For instance, I schedule time to attend sporting events where my brother competes. I am also willing to discuss challenging topics with my parents. My parents support me and offer a suitable solution to my issue, as well as reassuring me that it is not my fault if I am struggling. I maintain a healthy balance in my friendships by prioritising establishing new friends. Since my friends and I are busy with our assignments, I will schedule time to spend out with them. Even though we can't meet every day, we'll make sure to carefully plan our time together to create special memories. For example, we might decide to visit Kuala Lumpur for a picnic or to do shopping and cooking when we are all on leave from class.

The term "online self" refers to the social identity that an internet user creates while
participating in online forums and communities. Every time we have a special occasion,
post pictures and videos of my family to manage my relationship with them online. My
family is able to relive special occasions thanks to social media. We post on social media to mark events such as my parents' wedding anniversary, family members' birthdays, and
accomplishments. Even though they are separated by distance, all family members will see the family grow. When family members know and care about one other, they will feel closer. I keep in touch with my online friends by hosting movie nights. By sharing a screen on Google Meet, we'll enjoy movies together. We watched each other's favourite movie during Coronavirus, gave each other criticism, and spoke about the moral of the movie. We can watch it together on our computers without leaving the house or going to the cinema. Without even noticing it, we create memories and build closer relationships.

3. Differences between real-self and online-self

There are differences between my real-self and online-self. My online-self is not the same as my real-self. The characteristics I represent online differ from the characteristics I represent in the physical world. I act more confident on the internet. While in real life I am more shy. My online-self is what I want to be, not who I actually am. I represent myself online and real differently. I can keep information only for myself because I have a secret that I do not let others know. My real self is the true self that has the true qualities, aptitudes, inclinations, and characteristics. It is intrinsically who I actually am. It is the way I think, feel, look and behave. My online self rarely matches my real self because I tend to exaggerate to revise and calculate the content I present in spontaneous face-to-face interactions.

4. Overcome the difference between real-self and online-self

The difference between one's real self and one's online self can be overcome in a
variety of ways. Selective identity disclosure between one's real self and one's online self is acceptable. It's crucial to match your online and real selves. First of all, be alert. A person should keep in mind that they do not have to share everything in digital world in order to distinguish between their real selves and their online selves. Spend a little time taking in the amazing surroundings, the people, the smells, tastes, and sounds. A person can improve their self-awareness and learn to know themselves better by engaging in mindfulness practises. The distinction between the real world and the internet should also be made. Online and offline selves do not have to be exclusive. However, youngsters frequently neglect their real selves in the real world in favour of their online selves. It's wise to draw a distinction between your offline and online selves. A person should be aware of their physical location and concentrate on their feelings. Finally, a person should consider real-life dialogue to distinguish between their true selves and their online selves. When others say that conversing with individuals online and Real life is like conversing with two distinct persons, it puts some people in awkward situations. During face-to-face interactions, reflecting on who, how, and what can help align the virtual and physical selves. Recognize that your communication style varies based on who you are speaking with.

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, online self has its benefits and drawbacks. On social media, I seem confident, but in person, I'm shy. Someone is not being two-faced just because they present a different persona. The only thing it implies is that there is room for possibility. People can learn things, study them, get better, and then use them in real life in the online world. The majority of the effects of regular internet use have been favourable, yet we still have challenges to face because of this technology. The real me always comes before my internet persona, not the other way around. The online world may be an enjoyable and practical instrument for revealing your true self to others and learning about new facets.

2. GROUP

MEDIA REPRESENTATION OF MULTIRACIAL

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Malaysian population consists of a multiracial, religious, and ethnic community. The largest group of Malaysians consists of three main races namely Malays, Chinese and Indians. In addition, there are also indigenous people in Peninsular Malaysia who are Orang Asli and are generally divided into the three largest races, namely Negrito, Senoi and Proto Malay. The state of Sabah has the largest ethnic group with various dialects and cultures, which is as many as 32 ethnic groups, the majority of which are Kadazandusun ethnic groups. Other groups include the Rungus, Bajau, Bajau Laut, Murut, Lundayeh, Orang Sungai and iranun. The population of Sarawak consists of 27 ethnic groups and the Iban ethnic group is the majority ethnic group in addition to the Bidayuh, Melanau and Orang Ulu (Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia, 2023).

The latest statistics of Malaysia’s population in 2022 are estimated to be 32.7 million people. The percentage of the population by race in Malaysia is different. The percentage of Malays in Malaysia in 2022 will be 69.6%, Chinese will be 22.8% and Indians will be 6.6%. while other races in Malaysia by 0.7% in 2022. The annual population growth rate increases by 0.2% (Permohonan My, 2021). Subsequently, media is a radio, television, newspapers, the internet, and magazines, considered as a group can be followed by a singular or plural verb. The Latin word “medium”, which means “middle ground or intermediate '', is the root of the English world “media”. It is most likely derived from the term “mass media'', which was a technical term used in the advertising industry starting in the 1920s to describe newspapers, radio, and other information sources (Macmillian Dictionary, 2018).

Among the interests of the media is giving us immense knowledge and transmitting information. The media keeps us up to date on a variety of global events. It informs us of what is occurring locally and globally. We gain a great deal of knowledge on a wide range of topics with the aid of the media. Information dissemination relies heavily on the media. To keep the general people informed about what is happening in the nation and around the world, it periodically transmits, prints, and updates information. Next, raise our consciousness. Our awareness is sparked by the media’s ability to enlighten and educate us. It does not impose its viewpoint on us, rather it gives us information, facts, numbers, and news so that we can evaluate it and determine what is good and wrong. 

Finally, raises voice against in societies. By making awareness of problems, the media also benefits society. The media has recently brought up numerous instances of social difficulties, such as gender discrimination. When such issues are presented and exposed in the media, the public is made aware, and the appropriate actions are taken to resolve the issues. Media also aids in getting the voice of the people to the relevant authorities.

 2.0 HOW MEDIA IN UNIVERSAL REPRESENT MULTIRACIAL 

The cultural significance of social media cannot be overstated. It has a significant impact on societal cultural developments, such that the role of men and women has been determined by the media. It had an impact on both intercultural and international communication. Many individuals throughout the world have been attempting to figure out what culture is and how it influences how people act. Multiple sociology researchers have attempted to develop various definitions of culture, many of which are contradictory. The media has played an important role in conveying its significance to the public and allowing everyone to have a cultural identity. People's well-being can only be ensured if they have a strong and distinct identity that shapes their sense of self and their interactions with those who have a different cultural identity. People from diverse civilizations may interact and negotiate better since they have distinct values and backgrounds. Because many individuals are unaware of their cultural identity, intercultural partnerships have continued to fail. The internet and mass media have played important roles in fostering globalisation, which has had several good effects on the cultures of various countries and races across the globe.

Learning about different cultures via the media might lead to harmful prejudices at times. To prevent stereotypes, the media plays a vital role in educating people and familiarising them with other cultures. The media has perpetuated prejudices such as presenting Muslims as terrorists and Africans as illiterates. The media may play a significant part in developing the cultures of various civilizations throughout the globe and preventing prejudice and stereotyping by teaching people about diverse cultures and stressing the good features. The mainstream media has a broad audience, which gives it significant influence over many social problems. The media campaigns for social issues and facilitates communication and sharing of beneficial cultural values amongst civilizations.

2.1 WHAT MEDIA DO (FILM)?

         Racial minorities continue to be underrepresented in the Hollywood film industry. Characters from racially underrepresented groups acquire less screen time, occupy fewer key narrative roles, and typically inherit plotlines, motives, and actions predominantly led by White characters. One of the movies is The Butler in 2013 (Figure 1). Lee Daniels directed and co-produced the American historical drama film The Butler, which Danny Strong wrote the script for. Based on a real event, this film depicts the decades-long social and political evolution of the United States as seen through the eyes of a black butler who worked for eight U.S. presidents. It covers the whole of African American life, from childhood to adulthood, and even includes a rare video of police brutality during the Civil Rights era. During a CNN interview, Daniels reflected on the film's depiction of race and class in America, saying, "He was the first paediatric surgeon of colour in America and when he saw this movie, I can't explain to you what it was like." Daniels' 91-year-old uncle aptly encapsulated the range of feelings and experiences reflected in the film. From the very first moment to the very last, he wept and laughed equally. The next movie is 12 Years A Slave (Figure 2), a movie that is inspired by the autobiography of Solomon Northup, an African-American man who was abducted and sold into slavery in 1841 despite having been born a free man; this film is particularly moving because of its true-life source material. In Amistad (1997), Steven Spielberg dramatises another actual event of a revolt by Africans being carried on a slave ship and their subsequent trial, repercussions from which laid the roots of the Civil War.

Figure 1: The Butler (2013)           Figure 2: 12 Years A Slave (2013)

2.2 WHAT MEDIA DO (SOCIAL MEDIA)?

Social media has become a primary source for all over people around the world seeking political and journalistic information, as well as for rallying support for a cause or movement. An additional useful use of social media is as a meeting place for people with similar interests. Even more so, the collective voice of a site's users may sometimes be amplified on Twitter, Instagram, and other social networking sites.

Black Lives Matter was a movement that emerged when the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter became popular. The hashtag was used around 12 million times between July 12, 2013, and March 31, 2016, with the vast majority of those uses being in favour of the campaign. Forty percent of all uses of #BlackLivesMatter were in support of the social movement, while just eleven percent were critical of it. In 2020, Twitter’s official account pushed out references to the Black Lives Matter movement on its profile as demonstrations over George Floyd's murder and police brutality raged throughout the United States. The social networking platform updated its profile photo and background, as well as adding the official "#BlackLivesMatter" hashtag to its bio (Figure 3). Following the recent murders of Ahmaud Arbery, Breonna Taylor, Tony McDade, and George Floyd, the main account retweeted a post from its diversity and inclusion section, @TwitterTogether, that discussed several methods of being an ally (Figure 4).

Figure 3: Twitter’s official account changedits bio to #BlackLivesMatter

Figure 4 : @TwitterTogether promoted about #BlackLivesMatter

Other than that, famous football clubs like Manchester United FC did not pass up the chance to use social media platforms (Instagram) to greet their followers' festivals all over the world (Figure 5). By 5th January 2023, today, Manchester United’s official Instagram account has 60.5M Followers, 24.3K Posts in their Instagram.

Figure 5: Manchester United’s Instagram official account greetings festival

2.3 HOW MEDIA IN MALAYSIA REPRESENT MULTIRACIAL

         Malaysia, originally known as the Federation of Malaya, has experienced numerous difficulties and barriers in establishing peace today since gaining independence on August 31, 1957. Previous leaders who are representative of every race and nation in this country worked hard to provide freedom from colonisation. However, the peace that our grandparents once had is deteriorating rapidly. Along with the national political movement, which is also founded on race and religion, the economic and educational divide is one of the reasons that contribute to this problem. There is no disputing that although we both have black hair, our emotions are very different.

Therefore, everyone who wishes to see our nation advance should foster a mindset of tolerance and a celebration of differences. Nowadays, the role of the media must be one of the main pillars in providing emphasis and exposure on racial issues in Malaysia. Print media, electronic media, or digital media, as well as internet media, according to Selangor Menteri Besar Amirudin Shari (2019), all contribute significantly and favourably to Malaysia's racial development. The media introduces diverse media, such as information conduits through social media sites like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and others, and so plays a significant role in the fourth industrial revolution.

2.4 WHAT MEDIA DO (FILM)?

         Our multi-media nation is now acquiring considerable power in an endeavour to put pressure on and expose Malaysians. Given that most people like using the media as a means of information sharing and enjoyment, it makes sense. Based on observations, production-based TV shows are currently attempting to create unity in racism through well-watched dramas and films that are the spirit of unification. One of the movies is Ola Bola, which is based on the true tale of the national football team of the 1980s, who we knew had a strong battling spirit at the time and was evenly distributed among players of different races but failed to make a reputation for themselves. Additionally, the film Estate depicts the tale of a group of people who live in a community with elements of love and their own issues. The next film is Adiwiraku, which is based on real events and explores relationships between teachers and students as well as the concept of education. The story has numerous storylines in it and is made into a community living under the same sky and film. Kolumpo, which tells the diverse races in the capital Kuala Lumpur, is the final film (Figure 6). There are many more recognized films such as the “Kampong Pisang Kita Setandan” which have been praised by various parties who emphasise the colourful colours of the diverse cultures in our country (Figure 7). Such films have their own influence in shaping the spirit of unity through the nature of the individual's observations.

Figure 6: Here is a film themed in a spirit of unity that captures the attention and praise of the people

Figure 7: Press article raising film “Kampong Pisang Kita Setandan”

2.5 WHAT MEDIA DO (ANIMATION)?

         According to the late Sultan Johor Sultan Ibrahim the late Sultan Iskandar (2019), the spirit of unity must begin in school to support efforts to promote ideals of racial peace. He also stated that it is important to encourage this spirit throughout childhood. The Hypodermic, also known as the Magic Bullet idea, put forward by Harold Lasswell in the 1920s, is undoubtedly extremely simple to relate to from the perspective of the child's media audit. According to this hypothesis, everything a viewer or listener sees or hears has a direct impact on them. This notion fits with how impressionable and susceptible young people behave.

One of the primary components and benefits of drawing children in is animated media. Dr. Nor Afian Yusof, a lecturer at the Centre for Imagery Studies of the National University at Malaysia, claims that SMEs (2021) is a top-notch animation that is knowledgeable about the spirit of youngsters. Every kid instantly enjoys the animation they are seeing. This is so because the animation's nature fits the child's preferences rather well. The young viewers are drawn in by the adorable, upbeat, and colourful persona. Additionally, if the animation continues, the plot will keep kids glued to the television.

Malaysia is currently creating a national creative sector. The way that the animation sector in our nation reflects our nation's wealth makes it special. As we can see in the best examples of the Upin and Ipin animated series (Figure 8), which demonstrates the diversity of characters from different races, such as the Chinese character in May who became well-known for the catchphrase "I like it, I like it" and the character Jarjit Singh who became well-known for his pantomime sales. There are also numerous additional characters, such as Rajoo, who is well-known for his cow which is Sapy, the Uncle Muthu figure, and a restaurant merchant. This Upin and Ipin cartoon series highlights the diversity of our countrymen through their humorous sketches that are more connected to the plural community, such as the celebration of Aidilfitri, Chinese New Year, and Deepavali (Figure 9).

The animations of Ejen Ali and BoboiBoy are two more excellent series produced in Malaysia, although they are also behind in terms of the country's racial variety and unifying spirit. The strength that must be used in how Malaysia shows its ethnic variety can be inferred from the Malaysian animated series.

Figure 8: Character diversity in the Upin & Ipin Animation series

Figure 9: Racial diversity in Upin & Ipin

2.6 WHAT MEDIA DO (NEWS, RADIO)?

         The diversity of Malaysians is also shown through radio and the news media. The Malaysian news will undoubtedly cover all aspects of prejudice if a person of Chinese nationality represents our nation, according to an amusing fantasy that circulates there. Chinese, Tamil, and Malay news are only a few of the languages used in Malaysian news.  Radio stations in Malaysia like Minnal FM, which broadcasts in Tamil, and 988 FM, a Malaysian station that broadcasts in Chinese, also feature a variety of music (Figure 10). These multilingual variations reveal the situation of our nation and reflect Malaysia's success.

Figure 10: Diversity of radio stations

2.7 WHAT MEDIA DO (MINISTRY & SOCIAL MEDIA )?

 The Malaysian government has also seized the chance to stifle the diversity of its citizens by employing the catchphrase "Keluarga Malaysia," which is well-known (Figure 11). The purpose of using the “Keluarga Malaysia” concept is to foster a sense of oneness that entails inclusivity, camaraderie, and gratitude. The idea of "prosperity" clearly conveys a strong feeling of the diversity of this Malaysian nation, where everyone is treated as family regardless of race or culture.

Figure 11: “Keluarga Malaysia” Icons

One of the most important platforms to keep in mind is the media components that social media has brought with it. The typical social media user does not pass up the chance to honour the diversity of our country either. The companies that provide the agencies to greet the festivals in our nation are undoubtedly present on this platform, which is one of the important observations in social media usage (Figure 12). Even though these greetings are frequently undervalued by some, they have a significant impact on preserving racial peace in our nation.

Figure 12: Malaysian wishes posters

3.0 EFFECTS TO INDIVIDUAL

Individuals who identify as mono- or multi-racial are likely to have distinct conceptions of race and, as a result, take various responses to racial ambiguity. Particularly, monoracial people may be more inclined to depend on categories while processing ambiguous appearances, whereas multiracial people have a lower propensity to essentialize race. Because of the uncertainty in their racial look, multiracial people are sometimes challenging to categories. Due to this uncertainty, multiracial people are regularly asked, "What are you? ", and are commonly met with comments such as, "Really? Are you sure?" or "You don't look at it."

         Besides that, genetics also are bringing personal closer for multiracial individuals. New communication has a new study about a proposed method to the factor of genetic risk and a cornerstone of the personalised medicine revolution to the individual with multiple ancestral origins. 

3.1 BIOLOGICAL

The study was led by Dr. Davide Marnetto from the Institute of Genomics of the University of Tartu, Estonia and coordinated by Dr. Luca Pagani from the same institution and from the University of Padova, Italy. We can look at the Figure 13 below to show that the genome from an admixed individual (blue/red) is separated into the two main ancestral components (Ancestry Deconvolution). Mutations associated with diseases or phenotypic traits on each component (black dots) are studied separately and two Ancestry Specific Partial Polygenic Scores (A and B) are computed using information from population specific Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS). The two Ancestry Specific Partial Polygenic Scores are then combined together to obtain the individual's Ancestry Specific Polygenic Score. Credit: Davide Marnetto.

Figure 13:  The genome from an admixed individual (blue/red)

         Based on Vanesha (2021) stated that multiracial is having two or more races within your genealogy. People who identify more than one race also may use terms such as “biracial” and “mixed race” to describe themselves. In Malaysia, multiracial individuals are a growing population.  The multiracial problems literature is still young and sparse, but it is fast expanding in volume and diversity. For instance, studies have looked at how mixed ancestry affects social identity, peer relationships, academic achievement, self-esteem, and adjustment (Shih & Sanchez, 2005). Among people with multiracial backgrounds, those who identify as multiracial have equivalent or more positive experiences than those who identify with a monoracial group, regardless of that group's status in society (Binning et al., 2009, Townsend et al., 2009).

         The hypodermic needle was proposed by Harold Lasswell in the 1920s stating that the hypodermic model, also known as the ‘Magic bullet theory’, explains how the audience is directly affected by what they view and hear. Besides that, it also affects the audience or viewer immediately or in the near future. Media can ‘inject’ or ‘fire’ ideas, values and attitudes into a passive audience, who might then act upon them. The human face conveys a range of important social information, including race. Despite the ease with which facial information may be analysed, race has a significant impact on face recognition accuracy. Thus, based on Meissner and Brigham (2001); Sporer (2001); Wright et al.(2003); Walker and Hewstone (2006); and Goldinger et al. (2009) stated that the term "race" to "ethnicity" since it more accurately describes the many ethnic communities in Malaysia. The phenomena wherein own-race faces are more easily identified than those of another race is referred to as the own-race bias (ORB; also known as the other-race effect and cross-race effect).

3.2 COGNITIVE

Categorizations of multiracial individuals provide insight into the psychological mechanisms that drive social stratification, but few studies have explored the interplay of the cognitive and motivational underpinnings of these classifications. Unobservable and invariant properties of racial divisions and negative bias beliefs, such as a tendency to give more weight to negative entities than positive entities, explain why people may exhibit bias in the classification of multiracial individuals. Theoretically, personality and experimentally induced racial essentialism led to the classification of black-white multiracial individuals as black, but only in individuals who rated blacks more negatively than whites. These findings demonstrate how fundamental cognitive and motivational biases interact to influence the classification of multiracial individuals.

3.3 BEHAVIOUR

Behaviour is a person’s observable and manifest actions. Multiracial individuals choose to identify themselves based on their ethnicity and how this choice is associated with their self-reported levels of mental health (e.g., self-esteem, positive affect) and social engagement (e.g., civic behaviour, group alienation).

         First as all, we look at how monoracial people perceive multiracial will become a critical aspect of race relations in the United States. This demographic shift highlights the need to expand social psychological theory and investigation to understand the perceptions of multiethnic people. We can review existing research on how people of mixed race see and remember people of mixed race, focusing on how these findings contribute to our understanding of racial categorization, impression formation, and intergroup relationships. People categorise multiracial groups based on principles of low ancestry (black + white = black), minority bias (black + white = nonwhite), and adoption of new categories (black + white = multiracial).

         The specific classification of a multi-ethnic target depends on several factors, including the availability of target information (ancestry, facial appearance), accessibility to different racial categories, perceived motivation, and broader cultural context. The downstream impact of these classification processes is discussed and future directions are highlighted. From this, we can encourage thinking about race as a multifaceted concept, including many components (appearance, identity, ancestry, and perception) that are not necessarily one-to-one, especially for mixed-race individuals.

3.4 AFFECTIVE

Racial identity invalidation, the denial of one's racial identity by others, is a significant racial stressor with detrimental effects on the mental health and well-being of multiracial individuals. Besides that, based on Funderburg (1994); Renn (2004); Rockquemore and Brunsma (2017) stated that multiracial individuals contradict traditional binary notions of race because they are able to "switch" between multiple racial identities based on social context. It is generally accepted that race is a biological construct that generates norms of monoracial identity and directly undermines the ability of multiracial people to belong to multiple racial groups simultaneously (Ho et al., 2015; Sanchez et al., 2014; Williams & Eberhardt, 2008).

         The conflict between single-racial categorical norms and the diversity of multiracial racial identities can lead to a mismatch between how multiracial individuals identify themselves and how others perceive and/or classify them. This racial dissonance is associated with a range of downstream psychological consequences, including experiencing psychological conflict and feelings of exclusion (Binning et al., 2009; Cheng & Lee, 2009; Nakashima, 1992; Sanchez et al., 2009; Shih & Sanchez, 2005; Shih & Lee Sanchez, 2009).

4.0 EFFECTS TO SOCIETY

Malaysia stands out among many races. This diversity, however, is not always reflected in the media. Non-Malays are frequently represented in television, film and media. Some racial boundaries are hidden in the media. Media representation of multiracial people can be extremely powerful, as it may be the only exposure to another culture that some audiences have. This would not be a problem if all representations of ethnicity in the media were balanced. 

4.1 PROMOTES OPEN-MINDEDNESS

The media's portrayal of multiracial people has an impact on society. Firstly, multiracial representation in the media promotes open-mindedness among various groups of people. Multiracial media representation in social media sites, films, animations, newspapers, and radios plays an important role in dispelling negative stereotypes of each race. Haran, Ritow, and Mellers (2013) reviewed trait level and epistemic orientation using Actively Open-Minded Thinking. Users' willingness to attend to new information and adopt a thoughtful and methodical mindset is one potentially promising antidote to this closed-mindedness. 

4.2 LOWERING PREJUDICES

The media's portrayal of multiracial people also contributes to lowering prejudice and fostering a sense of community. In a heterogeneous culture, constructive interpersonal connection is a solid first step in fostering tolerance. According to Allport (1954), the Contract Theory explains that in a multicultural society, unfavourable stereotypes and prejudice are caused by inadequate communication, a lack of understanding, and an abundance of erroneous information. Every person in a multiracial society needs to be civilised when interacting with others in social situations.

4.3 POLITICAL ABUSE

The way multiracial people are portrayed in Malaysian media has a detrimental effect on society. In addition to sparking the online battle, the abuse of freedom by some parties that raise delicate and contentious themes of race and religion has caused tension in society. According to the Department of Statistics Malaysia (2021), three of Malaysia's four main religions exhibit some degree of ethnic dominance. Due to this interconnectedness, it is simpler to exploit delicate racial and religious issues, which certain parties use to forward their goals without taking into account potential conflicts and tensions.  

4.4 DIVIDE RACIAL UNITY

The negative effect portrayed by the multiracial media is a provocation that can divide racial unity in Malaysia. Provocation and making fun of religion is a challenge in terms of unity in Malaysia. Minister in the Prime Minister’s Department, P. Waytha Moorthy said reading and believing sensational news on social media without verifying its authenticity or truth has contributed to the country's racial unity fraying.

5.0 SOLUTION OR RECOMMENDATION

A society made up of various races, cultures and religions is indeed a challenge for most countries, especially in managing social diversity. The challenge exists, especially in the aspect of creating harmony, peace and positive interaction between races, religions and cultures, thus requiring a prudent and respectful approach. There are a few solutions towards multiracial issues in society and individual-self.

First and foremost, community engagement. In Malaysia's multiracial society, issues with race and religion can occur, even between individuals of the same race. The Malaysian community must constantly focus on racial harmony to build a society with a first-class mentality and maintain national harmony. According to Simon Fisher et al. (2000), conflict, mistrust, and hatred between groups are the root causes of conflict in society. This argument may explain why it is challenging to achieve overall unity in a nation where numerous races retain negative sentiments toward one another. For instance, the May 13, 1969, events revealed Malaysia's connection with race (Shamsul Amri Baharuddin, 1990: 31). Through implementation planned education policy and good community relations, then of course the unity among the Malaysian community is getting stronger. If only the basics are going well but the relationship with the society is not good, certainly the country of Malaysia is still difficult to move forward.

Secondly, welcome all newcomers. Make "safe zone" signs or stickers. Create a committee to welcome newcomers from all backgrounds, regardless of appearance. Send members of your committee or neighbourhood association to the new person's home with flowers, a fruit basket, or some other little gift, and introduce yourself "We're happy you live here. You're welcome here." Some neighbourhoods have created small placards or stickers that say, "We welcome good neighbours of all traditions, backgrounds, and beliefs," which are placed on their homes. These contrast with the modest yard signs posted by many homeowners informing potential burglars of the specific security system they have installed. 

Last but not least, show interest in learning about other cultures. Being culturally competent is having an interest in other people's cultures. Learning is more than just reading books and doing some web research. Having new experiences is a key component of learning. You must allow yourself to develop multicultural awareness and competency if you want to learn. According to authors Abramson and Remington, "the person involved in cross-cultural issues must be careful not to assume that the perception and values of the persons involved in the conflict are the same" (Abramson, Remington, 2018. Pg. 18, Para. 1). Because it requires new thoughts, this might be challenging. Reading, talking to people from different cultures, and participating in various training programmes are all good ways to learn about cross-cultural conflict.

6.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, how the media represent multiracial in universal and Malaysia is so diffrent. Thus, in universal, media representation about multiracial things are not shown much while in Malaysia, the media represents this multiracial show of things that are racist and are shown a lot in the media in Malaysia. For example, in terms of the film industry, animation, news, radio, ministry and other social media, we can see that multiracial is shown in the media. In addition, in one media it shows the various races sitting with the same direction and spirit as a multi-racial society. 

The effect of media on individuals and society is different because individuals are divided into biological, cognitive, behavioural, and affective aspects. While society is divided into aspects that promote open-mindedness, lowering prejudices, political abuse, and dividing racial unity. With these different aspects causing different impacts between individuals and society. However, due to the solid tenacity in the souls of each race, the nature of racism cannot be broken apart by the media and any outside party because social media provides a lot of positive exposure of each  race in Malaysia and the rest of the world. Thus, the community tries to learn and respect each other like Malays, Chinese and Indian who tolerate each other in every matter. There are several solutions or recommendations that can be made for social diversity, such as community engagement, making “safe zone” signs or stickers, and showing interest in learning about cultures. This way, everyone on the planet can learn about multiracial people. 

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