SMM 30203 RESEARCH METHOD

TOPICS:

• THE MEANING OF RESEARCH
• RESEARCH PROCESS
• SELECTING AND DEFINING A RESEARCH TOPIC
• DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• LITERATURE SEARCH
• TYPES OF RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• TYPES OF RESEARCH: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• SELECTING A SAMPLE
• SELECTING MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
• DATA COLLECTION, DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
• PRODUCING AND CONSUMING RESEARCH: WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

EVALUATION CONTRIBUTION:

• Quiz 20%
• Test 30%
• Research Proposal 50%

CHAPTER 1: The Meaning of Research

1.     Concept of Research

·       To re-search

·       To re-examine

·       To investigate

·       To test

·       To enquire

2.     What is Research?

·       Research is an investigate process of finding reliable solution to a problem through a systematic selection

·       Research is all activities that makes us discover new knowledge about things around us

3.     Research Proposal Flow Chart

·       Introduction

                                                    i.     Research question

Summary of proposal

·       Literature review

                                                    i.     Literature on topic

                                                  ii.     Literature on method

                                                iii.     Theoretical approach

Find a hole

Look for debates

·       Methodology

                                                    i.     Research design

                                                  ii.     Research procedures

                                                iii.     Kind of data

                                                iv.     Collection procedures

Selection and access

Human subjects revies

Ethics statement

Costs and funding

·       Preliminary data

                                                    i.     Evidence of importance

                                                  ii.     Informs methodology

Preliminary findings

Important categories and relationships

·       Statement of limitation

                                                    i.     Alternatives

                                                  ii.     Weaknesses

What your research will do

·       Conclusion

                                                    i.     Contribution

Importance

4.     Process of Research

·       Identifying a problem

·       Defining the problem in precise terms in unambiguous terms

·       Stating the problems in form of research questions and research hypotheses

·       Designing the research

·       Collecting data

·       Analyzing data

·       Interpretation of data

·       Drawing conclusion

·       Making recommendations

5.     Purpose of Research

·       To test what you already know

·       To understand the other side of an issue

·       To establish reliable guide

·       To expand knowledge

·       To predict, explain and interpret a behavior

·       To provide solution to a problem

6.     Classification of Research

·       Classification by purpose

                                                    i.     Basic (pure) research: This is concern with the production of result and finding which lead to development of theory

                                                  ii.     Applied research: This is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluate its usefulness in solving problems. It is concerned with the usefulness of ideas or theories or practical situation

                                                iii.     Action research: Research that is directed towards solving specific problem in a local setting. It is usually taken by a teacher or group of teachers in school to solving specific problem so that the result can be generalized

                                                iv.     Evaluation research: The results of evaluation research help in decision making

                                                  v.     Research and Development (R&D): This is aimed at developing and testing product to ensure their effectiveness

·       Classification by method

                                                    i.     Historical: Oral evidence such as diaries, case history, autobiography, logbook, books, journals, magazines

                                                  ii.     Descriptive (survey): Survey research. Based on information, interview (oral, written, structured, unstructured), inventories, rating scales, self-report, observation. Aim at fact finding of the present condition or current situation

                                                iii.     Correlational: Investigate relationships between two variables or more without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them

                                                iv.     Experimental: Involves investigating possible cause and effect relationship by exposing one or more experimental groups to a treatment and one or more control groups not receiving the treatment

                                                  v.     Casual-comparative (Ex-post-fact0): Represent distinctly different methods, however both attempts to establish cause-effect relationship and both involve group comparison  

·       Classification of research based on evidences required or method or data analysis

                                                    i.     Qualitative

                                                  ii.     Quantitative

                                                iii.     Triangulation of multiple perspectives

7.     Identifying Research Problem

·       Where do you get research problem from:

                                                    i.     Seminar reports

                                                  ii.     Literature review: journal, textbooks, internet

                                                iii.     Dissertations

                                                iv.     Suggestion for further studies

                                                  v.     Existing theory

                                                vi.     Replication of studies

8.     Choosing a research topic

·       Research topic is taken from research problem

·       Factors that can influence choice of research topic:

                                                    i.     The researcher’s discipline

                                                  ii.     Duration

                                                iii.     Fund availability

                                                iv.     Desire for in-depth knowledge

                                                  v.     Availability of resources

                                                vi.     Income derivable

·       Wordings of research topic:

                                                    i.     Appropriate

                                                  ii.     Descriptive

                                                iii.     Simple and unambiguous

                                                iv.     It must be short and straight forward

                                                  v.     It must be large enough to cover the subject matter

                                                vi.     Word limited per title 14-20

9.     Characteristics of a good research topic

·       It must be researchable: problem that can be investigated through collection of data

·       It must have 2 or more interacting variables

·       It must be an area of interest

10.  What is variable?

·       Any quality or quantity in which the researcher is interested and which varies in the course of the research

·       Types of variables:

                                                    i.     Independent: Called manipulative or treatment variable. Determine the nature or the occurrence of another variable. Manipulated by the researcher. It presume to cause, influence or affect the outcome (dependent variable)

                                                  ii.     Dependent: Called outcome variable. Presumed to affect. Variable that changes, appear, disappear as researcher changes, remove, introduces the independent variable

                                                iii.     Extraneous: Secondary independent variable that may affect the outcome of research if not controlled. Eg: moderator variable

                                                iv.     Intervening: cannot be manipulated or studied directly because their effect cannot be measured/ manipulated

11.  Introduction-background to the study

·       Provides reader with background information for the research

·       Establishes the issue or concern leading to the research

·       It must create reader’s interest in the topic

·       Establish the problem that led to the study

·       Suggested part of introduction:

                                                    i.     The research problem

                                                  ii.     Studies that have addressed the problem

                                                iii.     Deficiencies in the studies

                                                iv.     The importance of the study

                                                  v.     Statement of the problem

                                                vi.     Objectives of the study

                                               vii.     Research questions

                                             viii.     Research hypotheses

·       Guidelines for writing introduction:

                                                    i.     The opening sentence must be able to stimulate the reader

                                                  ii.     Consider numeric information clearly identify the research problem

                                                iii.     Indicate why the problem is important citing reference that justify the need to study the problem

                                                iv.     Narrow the focus to specific questions to be answered or hypothesis to be tested

12.  Research objectives

·       The research objectives are stated after the statement of the problem

·       It helps to transform the research problem into a testable form, indicating clearly in specific terms what the researcher intends to achieve

·       Language use- to examine, determine, assess, and find

13.  Research questions

·       Interrogative statements/ question that the researcher seeks to answer

·       Characteristics:

                                                    i.     Clearly stated

                                                  ii.     Determine the type of data to be collected how and from

                                                iii.     Provide focus and direction to the major issues

                                                iv.     Large enough to cover all major variables

14.  Research hypotheses

·       Can be formulated in two forms:

                                                    i.     Null hypothesis: negative form. Ho use to represent null hypothesis. Non-directional hypothesis because it does not indicate a favorable/ negative expectation of the findings.

                                                  ii.     Alternative hypothesis: positive form. H1represent alternative hypothesis. Directional hypothesis because it specifies the relationship between variables.

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH PROCESS

Steps in Research Process:

1.     Define research problem

a.     Research problem is an issue/ question that needs to be sobbed

b.     Solution can be found out only after an investigation

c.      Research problem is an area of concern where there is a gap in the knowledge base needed for professional practices

d.     The gap could be academic/ theoretical (basic) or real solution/ action oriented (applied)

e.      Generally, a broad area is selected then narrowed down to a specific one sentence of statement

f.      Sources of research problem: Personal experience, practical experience, critical review of literature, previous research, existing theories, social issues, intuition, brainstorming, exposure to field situations, consultation with experts

2.     Review of literature

a.     Evidence:

                                        1.     Primary evidence: original research such as clinical trials, studies or statistical reports

                                        2.     Secondary evidence: articles in author reports on original research or data

                                        3.     Good review:

o   Critical

o   Analytical

o   Synthesis of key themes and ideas

o   Comprehensive

o   Balanced between ideas and opinions

o   Selective by using appropriate search strategies

o   Relevant

3.     Specify the purpose for doing research

a.     Research question

b.     Research objective

c.      Research hypothesis

4.     Prepare research design

a.     Qualitative research

                                        1.     Exploratory: Collect info in an unstructured & informal manner. Focus group: observation

                                        2.     Quantitative research

1.     Descriptive: a of method and procedure that describe research variable. Survey research

2.     Causal: experiment and other approach that allow isolation of causes and effects

5.     Determine sample

a.     Characteristics of good sample:

                                        1.     Representativeness

                                        2.     Adequate

                                        3.     Independence

                                        4.     Homogenous

                                        5.     Lack of bias

                                        6.     Accurate and complete

6.     Collect data

a.     Primary data: gathered specially for the research objectives. Collecting data directly from participants. Eg: interview questionnaire, observation, focus group, document revies

b.     Secondary data: collected for some purpose other than the research. Accessing data through source such as internet and library. Eg: publication of central, state, local newspapers, technical journals, books, magazines, newspaper, public record, statistics, historical documents

7.     Analyze data

a.     Classification of raw data into purposeful and usable categories

b.     Coding may be tabulated and counted

c.      Editing improve quality put in form

d.     Drawing statistical assumption/ judgements

e.      Involves hypothesis testing accept/reject. Various tests- chi square test, t-test, f-test

8.     Interpret the result

a.     Research finding

b.     No hypothesis, finding on basis some theory

9.     Prepare the report

a.     Properly present and justify findings. Concise and objective style

 

CHAPTER 3: SELECTING AND DEFINING A RESEARCH TOPIC

1.     Objectives

• Select and refine a topic to study.

• Distinguish good research topics from less appropriate ones.

• Distinguish between topic statements for quantitative studies and those for qualitative

studies

2.     The research topic

• Selecting and defining a research topic is the first step in applying the scientific method.

• The research process is not linear and is often a process of trial and error.

• The research topic provides focus and structure.

• The research topic should be relevant and of interest to you.

3.     Sources of research topic

• Theories

• Previous studies

• Personal experiences

• Studies that can be replicated

• Replication studies use a new sample to retest a hypothesis.

• Library searches

4.     Narrowing a topic

• Most topics need to be narrowed.

• Topics that are too broad:

• require larger literature reviews.

• complicate organization of literature review.

• lead to unfocused studies that are difficult to carry out and interpret.

• Narrow quantitative topics at the start of the research process.

• Qualitative researchers often narrow their topic after they are in the field.

5.     Characteristics of a good topic

• Interesting

• Researchable

• Has theoretical or practical importance

• Ethical

• Manageable

6.     Stating the research topic

• Quantitative research topics describes the variables of interest, relations among those variables, and aspects of the sample.

• Qualitative research topics are often stated in more general language at the outset of a study because the focus of the study will likely emerge after time in the field.

7.     Placement of the topic statement

• The topic statement is used in research plans and in research reports.

• Research statements are accompanied by background of the study and justification for the study.

• The potential relevance of the topic should be stated. Thinking about significance of the topic often assists researchers in formulating hypotheses.

8.     Formulating & stating hypotheses

• A hypothesis is a prediction of the researchers’ expected findings.

• Many studies contain more than one hypothesis.

• Researchers collect data to either support or not support a hypothesis.

• Written hypotheses are included in research plans and reports.

• Hypotheses are central to most quantitative studies.

• Hypotheses in quantitative studies are formulated before conducting the study.

• All aspects of a quantitative study are affected by the hypotheses.

• Hypotheses are derived from theory or knowledge gained through literature review.

9.     Guidelines for hypotheses

1. A good hypothesis is consistent with existing theory or is derived from previous research.

2. A good hypothesis provides an explanation for the predicted outcome.

3. A good hypothesis clearly operationally defines variables and states expected relations among variables.

4. A good hypothesis is testable within a reasonable time frame.

10.  Types of hypotheses

·       Inductive hypothesis

• A generalization based upon observations

• e.g., A researcher observes that students are motivated by praise; this observation becomes the basis for a hypothesis

·       Deductive hypothesis

“Developing a hypothesis based on existing theory, and then designing a research strategy to test the hypothesis”

·       Nondirectional hypothesis

States that a relationship or difference exists among variables

• e.g., There are differences between male and female students in spatial ability.

·       Directional hypothesis

States the expected direction of the relationship or difference among variables

• e.g., Male students will outperform female students on a test of spatial ability

·       Null hypothesis

States that there is no significant relationship or difference among variables.

• Null hypotheses are stated when there is little existing research or theoretical support for a hypothesis.

• Null hypotheses are also more conservative than directional hypotheses in statistical tests.

• Most studies are not based in the null hypothesis.

• e.g., There are no significant differences in spatial ability between male and female students

11.  Stating the hypothesis

·       Good hypothesis

• is clearly and concisely stated.

• states the relation or difference among variables.

• defines variables in measurable terms.

·       Model for hypotheses

• P=The participants

• X=The treatment, the causal or independent variable (IV)

• Y=The study outcome, the effect or dependent variable (DV)

12.  Testing the hypothesis

• The hypothesis is used to guide the research study.

• The researcher conducts the study and then analyzes the data to determine if the hypothesis is supported.

• Hypotheses are not proven—they are supported or not supported.

• Valuable contributions to the literature can still be made if a hypothesis is not supported.

• Hypothesis testing contributes by expanding, refining, and revising the literature base.

13.  Formulating & stating hypotheses

Qualitative studies

• The qualitative researcher does not state formal hypotheses before conducting studies.

• Qualitative researchers may develop guiding hypotheses for the proposed research

• Qualitative researchers often generate new hypotheses during the course of their study.

• Qualitative researchers may generate research questions from their guiding hypotheses.

BAB 4: RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1.     APAKAH PROPOSAL PENYELIDIKAN

—Rangka perancangan yang dilakukan oleh penyelidik sebelum penyelidikan sebenar dijalankan

—Proposal terbuka kepada pembetulan dan kritikan bagi memantapkan penyelidikan

—Proposal tidak terhad kepada penulisan akademik seperti projek ilmiah, Latihan ilmiah,disertasi atau tesis tetapi juga digunakan dalam penyediaan mendapatkan geran penyelidikan daripada institusiberkaitan

2.     APAKAH OBKEKTIF UTAMA PROPOSAL PENYELIDIKAN

1. Menjadi panduan kepada penyelidik untuk mengenal pasti masalah, metodologi, objektif dan jangkaan hasil penyelidikannya

2. Memberi laluan kepada penyelia mengemukakan cadangan dan bimbingan terhadap perancangan penyelidikan oleh penyelidik di bawah seliaannya

3. Berfungsi sebagai buku perjanjian antara penyelidik dan penyelia supaya dapat bekerjasama merancang sebuah penyelidikan yang baik dan memastikan objektif kajian dicadangkan berhasil

3.     APAKAH PERMASALAN KAJIAN

— Masalah kajian merupakan suatu kesulitan atau kebuntuan yang menggerakkan penyelidik

memecahkannya

— Masalah kajian menjadi rangsangan intelektual yang memerlukan gerak balas dalam bentuk saintifik untuk direalisasikan

— Masalah yang dikemukan dapat menyatakan hubungan antara dua atau lebih pemboleh

ubah

— Masalah kajian perlulah dinyatakan dengan jelas dan tidak kabur. Ia boleh dinyatakan dalam bentuk pertanyaan yang boleh diuji secara empirikal

a.     TIPS MENGENAL PASTI MASALAH

— Masalah baru - Prinsip asas ‘nilai tambah ilmu’ perlu diberikan penekanan dalam menjalankan penyelidikan

— Masalah tidak terlalu kecil - Elak berlaku halangan perbincangan secara ilmiah dan mengurangkan maksud penyelidikan yang hendak di capai

— Masalah tidak terlalu besar - Pengkaji perlu ambilkira faktor batasan masa dan kos perbelanjaan. Elak terjerumus dalam kajian berbentuk umum.

b.     APAKAH UKURAN BESAR/KECIL

• Kemahiran penyelidik

• Maklumat literature review

c.      PENDEKATAN DALAM MENULIS PERMASALAHAN KAJIAN

1. Mengemukakan pengenalan kepada permasalahan kajian

2. Mengketengahkan latar sejarah permasalahan kajian

3. Mengaitkan permasalahan kajian dengan isu-isu

kontemporari berdasarkan data atau maklumat literatur

4. Menegaskan kepentingan permasalahan kajian untuk dikaji

4.     APAKAH MATLAMAT KAJIAN

• Matlamat umum sesebuah kajian

• Merujuk kepada tajuk kajian yang hendak dijalankan

5.     APAKAH OBJEKTIF KAJIAN

• Adalah matlamat khusus yang mengandungi lebih daripada satu tujuan

• Tujuan objektif kajian adalah untuk mengenalpasti maksud yang tersurat dan kepentingan sesebuah kajian dicadangkan. Objektif kajian hendaklah berdasarkan prinsip ‘V’.

6.     APAKAH TERMINOLOGI DALAM OBJEKTIF KAJIAN

— Untuk mengenalpasti (to identify)

— Untuk mencari hubungan (to correlate)

— Untuk mengukur (to measure)

— Untuk mengkaji (to examine)

— Untuk menjelaskan (to clarify, illustrate)

— Untuk menganalisa (to analyze)

— Untuk menilai (to evaluate)

— Untuk membandingkan (to compare)

— Untuk menentukan (to determine)

— Untuk membuktikan (to prove)

— Untuk mencadangkan (to propose)

7.     APAKAH BATASAN KAJIAN

• Tujuan untuk menghadkan bidang kajian supaya tidak terlalu luas

• Mengelakkan penilai atau pembaca mempersoalkan kenapa tidak dimasukkan bidang atau lokasi tertentu sedangkan menurut pandangan mereka relevan dengan kajian

a.     APAKAH ASAS DALAM BATASAN KAJIAN

1. Batasan masa

2. Batasan bidang kajian

3. Batasan lokasi kajian

8.     APAKAH DEFINISI OPERASIONAL

— Adalah sejumlah perkataan yang dipilih oleh penyelidik untuk diberikan huraian supaya tidak mengelirukan pembaca yang berkemungkinan mempunyai maksud lain seperti yang dipersepsikan oleh penyelidik

— Definisi operasional BUKAN definisi tajuk

— Perkataan yang dipilih hendaklah diberikan definisi sesuai dengan maksud penyelidik berdasarkan pendapat pakar bidang atau literatur berkaitan penyelidikannya

9.     APAKAH METODOLOGI KAJIAN

• Kaedah yang digunakan untuk mengumpul data atau menganalisa data

• Penting bagi melihat kaedah yang dirangka boleh mencapai objektif yang dicadangkan

a.     APAKAH ASPEK PENTING DALAM METODOLOGI KAJIAN

1. Jenis kajian- sama ada kajian pensejarahan, deskriptif, eksperimen,kajian lapangan atau kajian perpustakaan

2. Persampelan-persampelan mudah, persampelan kuota etc,jumlah sampel dan kawasan sampel

3. Instrumen kajian-sama ada borang soal selidik, temubual atau pemerhatian

4. Kaedah analisis data - menggunakan kajian perbandingan, analisis kandungan dan sebagainya

10.  APAKAH RANGKA CADANGAN PENYELIDIKAN

• Bab-bab perlu ditulis dengan terperinci dengan menyatakan tajuk utama dan sub-tajuk yang dirancang

• Sistem penomboran yang teliti perlu digunakan agar tidak berlaku pertindihan dan pengulangan

11.  RUJUKAN ATAU BIBLIOGRAFI

• Rujukan –bahan yang HANYA dirujuk khusus dalam penyeldikan

• Bibliografi-bahan yang DIRUJUK ATAU TIDAK tetapi mempunyai berkaitan dengan kajian

CHAPTER 5: LITERATURE REVIEW

1.     Definition

• Menulis sorotan literatur bukanlah sesuatu yang mudah.

• Ini kerana penulisan sorotan kajian memerlukan anda membahaskan kajian-kajian lepas bagi menjelaskan kedudukan kajian anda dalam konteks semasa.

• Anda perlu mengkritik kajian-kajian lepas untuk memberikan laluan kepada kajian anda mengisi gap yang belum terjawab sepenuhnya oleh kajian-kajian tersebut.

2.    
introduction (scope and structure)

 

3.     Seven steps to producing a literature review

a.     Identify your question

b.     Review discipline styles

c.      Search the literature

d.     Manage your reference

e.      Critically analyse and evaluate

f.      Synthesis

g.     Write the review

4.    
Literature search and review on your topic

 

5.     Lima aspek sorotan literatur

(1) sejarah perkembangan / latarbelakang / epistemology berkaitan kajian anda

(2) perbincangan berkaitan teori / konsep / variabel yang relevan yang mendasari kajian anda termasuk kerangka teoritikal

(3) perbincangan kritis kajian lepas dalam bidang berkaitan

(4) sorotan perkembangan terkini (jika boleh 5 tahun kebelakangan) berkaitan kajian yang melibatkan perbahasan/ isu / persoalan / terminology baru yang timbul

(5) bagaimana kajian anda mengisi ruang (gap) dari perkembangan terkini tersebut

6.     Langkah-langkah melaksanakan sorotan kajian

• Cari bahan bertulis yang terkini berkaitan dengan apa yang hendak dikaji.

• Baca abstrak /ringkasan untuk menentukan kesesuaian bahan.

• Kenal pasti: objektif, tujuan, kaedah kajian, dapatan, perbincangan, kesimpulan & implikasi.

• Buat rumusan sorotan kajian lepas untuk membentuk masalah kajian.

• Kata kunci - Identify key terms – key-words (kata kunci)

• Lokasi - Locate literature - cari bahan bertulis yang terkini berkaitan dengan apa yang hendak dikaji.

• Nilai - Critically evaluate and select the literature - baca abstrak /ringkasan untuk menentukan kesesuaian bahan

• Kenal pasti: objektif, tujuan, kaedah kajian, dapatan, perbincangan, kesimpulan & implikasi.

• Susun - Organize the literature

• Tulis - Write a review - buat rumusan sorotan kajian lepas untuk membentuk masalah kajian.

7.     Kata kunci dalam penulisan sorotan literatur yang boleh digunakan semasa menulis

a.     Active form

• Chin (2002) suggests that the most important aspect of national service is that it”…helps promote racial peace And harmony and the understanding to live as one people.”

b.     Passive form

It is suggested that national service is important because it”…helps promote racial

peace and harmony and the understanding to live as one people.” (Chin, 2002)

c.      Examine

Min-Zhan Lu (1992) has examined the differences between ... L1 composition pedagogies ... (Severino, 1993)

d.     Address

Kuno (1992) specifically addressed the distribution of these two particles and concludes that ...

e.      Develop

Maltz and Borker (1982) developed lists of what they described as men's and women's features of language. (Pennycook, 1993)

f.      Use (x to do y)

Barone (1989; 1993), for example, has used educational criticism to focus attention on how schools fail to meet the needs of underachieving students. (Flinders & Eisner, 1994)

g.     Stress

In 1970, Foucault began to stress the connection between reason

and power. (Poster, 1994)

h.     Suggest

Lakoff's pioneering work suggested that womens' speech typically displayed a range of features ... which marked it as inferior and weak. (Pennycook, 1994)

i.       Propose

Sheetz-Brunetti and Johnson (1983) have proposed the use of simple diagrams ... to teach ESL compositions skills

j.      Argue

Mies argues that the domestication ... of women in the metropolitan nations is dependent on the exploitation of the Third World. (1986)

k.     Demonstrate

As Tollefson (1989) demonstrates, it is often the case that U.S. policies ... have contributed to their immigration to the U.S. in the first place [Severino, 1993]

l.       Show

Meyer's research (1975) has shown that the hierarchical content structure of a text plays an important role in reading comprehension. (Carrell, 1987)

Johnson et al (1985) showed that on average there was actually more Cantonese spoken than English ... (Bruce, 1990)

Chapter 6: Type of quantitative research

1.     What is quantitative research

• Formal, objective, rigorous, systematic process for generating information

• Describes new situations, events, or concepts

• Examines relationships among variables

• Determines the effectiveness of treatments

2.     Types of quantitative research

a.     Descriptive

b.     Correlational

• Looks at the relationship between two or more variables

• Determines the strength and type of relationship

• Explains what is seen

• No cause and effect

c.      Quasi-experimental

• Examines cause-and-effect relationships

• Less control by researcher than true experimental designs

• Samples are not randomly selected.

• All variables in the study cannot be controlled by the researcher.

d.     Experimental

• Controlled manipulation of at least one independent variable

• Uses experimental and control groups

• Random assignment of the sample to the experimental and control groups

• Looks at cause-and-effect relationships

• Highly controlled, objective, systematic studies

• Involves the measurement of independent and dependent variables

3.     Important concepts in the quantitative research

a.     Basic research

b.     Applied research

c.      Rigor

d.     Control

e.      Extraneous variables

f.      Sampling

4.     Controls in quantitative research

Types of quantitative research	Research control	Research setting
Descriptive	Uncontrolled	Naturally or partially controlled
Correlational	Uncontrolled/ partially controlled	Natural or partially controlled
Quasi-experimental	Partially controlled	Partially controlled
Experimental	Highly controlled	Laboratory

 

5.     Steps in quantitative research

a.     Research problem

b.     Review of relevant literature

c.      Study framework

d.     Research objectives, questions or hypotheses

e.      Study variables

f.      Study design

g.     Population and sample

h.     Measurement methods

i.       Data collection

j.      Data analysis

k.     Discussion of research outcome

6.     Review: research problem and purposes

• Research problem is an area of concern

• The problem identifies, describes, or predicts the research situation.

• Research purpose comes from the problem and identifies the specific goal or aim of the study.

• The purpose includes variables, population, and setting for the study.

7.     Review: literature review

• Collecting pertinent literature to give in-depth knowledge about the problem

• Understanding what knowledge exists to make changes in practice

8.     Review: study framework

• Framework is the abstract, theoretical basis for a study that enables the researcher to link the findings to body of knowledge.

• Theory is an integrated set of defined concepts and relational statements that present a view of a phenomenon and can be used to describe, explain, predict, or control phenomena.

9.     Review: research objectives, questions and hypotheses

• All identify relationships between variables and indicate population to be studied

• Narrower in focus than the purpose and often specify only one or two research variables

10.  Review: variables

• Variables are concepts that are measured, manipulated, or controlled in a study.

• Concrete variables: temperature, weight

• Abstract variables: creativity, empathy

• Conceptual definition: gives meaning to a concept

• Operational definition: variable can be measured using this description

11.  Limitations

• Restrictions in a study that may decrease the credibility and generalizability of the findings

• Important to note whether or not limitations are addressed in the research report you are reading! The author(s) should report their identified limitations. This is often done in a separate section or paragraph at the end of the report. As a reader, you may also note additional limitations not addressed by the author(s). This is an important are for critique

• Theoretical limitations

• Restrict the generalization of the findings

• Reflected in the framework and definitions

• Methodological limitations

• Restrict the population to which the findings can be generalized

• May result from an unrepresentative sample or weak design

12.  Research design

• Blueprint for conducting the study

• Maximizes control over factors that could interfere with the study’s desired outcome

• Directs the selection of the population, sampling, methods of measure, plans for data collection, and analysis

• Blueprint or detailed plan for conducting a study

• Purpose, review of literature, and framework provide the basis for the design

13.  Introduction:

a.     Population

All elements that meet certain criteria for inclusion in study

Example: all women students in higher education

b.     Sample

A subset of the population that is selected for study

Example: women students at XYZ universities

14.  Introduction: measurement

• Assigning numbers to objects

• Application of rules to development of a measurement device or instrument

• Data are gathered at the nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio level of measurement.

• Must examine reliability and validity of measurement tool

• Reliability: consistency of the tool

• Validity: does it measure what it is supposed to measure?

15.  Linking the purpose to the design

• The design of the quantitative research study must match with the purpose

• As an example, it would not be appropriate to have a purpose of describing a set of variables with an experimental design, which is really meant to test a treatment or intervention

16.  Descriptive design

a.     Typical descriptive design

• Most commonly used design

• Examines characteristics of a single sample

• Identifies phenomenon, variables, and conceptua

operational definitions and describes definitions

b.     Comparative design

• Examines differences in variables in two or more groups that occur naturally in a setting.

• Results obtained from these analyses are frequently not generalizable to a population.

c.      Case study design

• Exploration of single unit of study (e.g., family, group, or community)

• Even though sample is small, number of variables studied is large.

• Design can be source of descriptive information to support or invalidate theories.

• It has potential to reveal important findings that can generate new hypotheses for testing.

• There is no control.

17.  Correlational design

a.     Descriptive correlational design: describe relationship between variable

b.     Predictive correlational design: predict relationship between variable

c.      Model testing design: test theoretically proposed relationship

18.  Benefits of experimental design

• More controlled design and conduct of study

• Increased internal validity: decreased threats to design validity

• Fewer rival hypotheses

19.  The essential elements of an experimental design

1. Random assignment of subjects to groups

2. Researcher-controlled manipulation of independent variable

3. Researcher control of experimental situation and setting,

including control/comparison group

4. Control of variance

• Clearly spelled out sampling criteria

• Precisely defined independent variable

• Carefully measured dependent variable

 

Chapter 6: Type of qualitative research

1.     What is qualitative research

• A holistic approach to questions—a recognition that human realities are complex. Broad questions.

• The focus is on human experience

• The research strategies used generally feature sustained contact with people in settings where those people normally spend their time. Contexts of Human Behavior.

• There is typically a high level of researcher involvement with subjects; strategies of participant observation and in-depth, unstructured interviews are often used.

• The data produced provide a description, usually narrative, of people living through events in situations.

2.     Types of qualitative data

a.     Interview

-Open-ended questions and probes yield in-depth responses about people’s

experiences, opinions, perceptions, feelings and knowledge.

-Data consist of verbatim quotations with sufficient context to be interpretable.

b.     Observation

– Fieldwork descriptions of activities,behaviors, actions, conversations, interpersonal interactions, organizational or community processes, or any other aspect of observable human experience.

– Data consist of field notes: rich detailed descriptions, including the context within

which the observations were made.

c.      Document

–Written materials and other documents, programs records; memoranda and correspondence; official publications and reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic

works, photographs, and memorabilia; and written responses to open-ended surveys.

– Data consists of excerpts from documents captured in a way that records and preserves context.

3.     Qualitative tradition of inquiry

a.     Phenomenology

– Describes the meaning of the lived experience about a concept or a phenomenon for several individuals.

– It has roots in the philosophical perspectives of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre,

Merleau-Ponty, etc.

--Max Van Manen, Munhall (Nursing)

• Moustakas, 1994, p. 13: “to determine what an experience means for the persons who have had the experience and are able to provide a comprehensive description of it. From the individual descriptions, general or universal meanings are derived, in other words, the essences of structures of the experience.”

b.     Grounded theory

–Based on Symbolic Interactionism which posits that humans act and interact on the basis of symbols, which have meaning and value for the actors.

• The intent of grounded theory is to generate or discover a theory that relates to a particular situation. If little is known about a topic, grounded theory is especially useful

–Usually have a question, don’t do a literature review in the beginning.

–Usually do 20-30 interviews (maybe more than one time for each person)

–Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously, until “saturation” is reached.

–Data reviewed and coded for categories and themes.

–Data analysis generates a visual picture, a narrative statement or a series of hypotheses with a central phenomenon, causal conditions, context and consequences.

–The researcher needs to set aside theoretical ideas or notions so that analytical or substantive theories can emerge from the data.

–Systematic approach

c.      Ethnography

– A description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system. The researcher examines the group’s observable and learned patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life.

– Involves prolonged observation of the group, typically through participant observation

– Need extensive time to collect data

– Many ethnographies may be written in a narrative or story telling approach which may be difficult for the audience accustomed to usual social science writing.servation.

–May incorporate quantitative data and archival documents

– Field Work

– Key Informants

– Thick description

– Emic (insider group perspective) and Etic (researcher’s interpretation of social life).

– Context important, need holistic view.

– Need grounding in anthropology.

d.     Case study

– A case study is an exploration of a “bounded system” or a case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context.

– The context of the case involves situating the case within its setting. which may be physical, social, historical and/or economic

4.     Designing a qualitative study

– Data collection strategies include direct observation, interviews, documents, archival records, participant observation, physical artifacts and audiovisual materials.

– Analysis of themes, or issues and an interpretation of the case by the researcher.

• Problem Statement or Statement of Need for the Study

• No hypothesis; Research questions which you want to answer instead.

• Opinions differ about the extent of literature needed before a study begins.

• Need to identify the gaps in knowledge about the topic.

5.     Qualitative sampling strategies

• Non-probability sampling

• Decisions about sampling and sampling strategies depend on the unit of analysis which has been determined.

– individual people

– program, group organization or community

– genders, ethnic groups, older and younger

• Purposeful or Judgment Sampling

– “In judgment sampling, you decide the purpose you want informants (or communities) to serve, and you go out to find some” Bernard, 2000:176

– “Key Informants” are people who are particularly knowledgeable about the inquiry setting and articulate about their knowledge.

6.     Qualitative data collection

• Rather than developing an instrument to use, the qualitative researcher is the instrument.

• Recording data: Field notes, video and photographic data

• Interviews must be transcribed.

7.     Fieldwork observations

• Learn to pay attention, see what there is to see, and hear what there is to hear.

• Practice writing descriptively

• Acquiring discipline in recording field notes

• Knowing how to separate detail from trivia to achieve the former without being overwhelmed by the latter.

• Use rigorous methods to validate and triangulate observations.

• Reporting strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective, which requires both self-knowledge and selfdisclosure.

• Participant observer or onlooker or both

8.     Qualitative interviewing

1. Informal conversational interview

2. Interview guide approach

3. Standardized open-ended interview

4. Closed, fixed-response interview

• Sequencing questions

• Use words that make sense to the people being interviewed.

• Ask truly open-ended questions

• Avoid questions which can be answered with a yes or no.

• One idea per question.

• Be careful with Why questions.

9.     Qualitative data analysis

• When does analysis begin? During data collection.

• Thick description is the foundation for qualitative analysis and reporting.

• Organize the data. Read all the data and get a sense of the whole.

• Coding for recurring themes and categories

• Computer-assisted qualitative data management and analysis

– Ethnograph

– NUD*IST (Non-numerical Unstructured Data With Indexing, Searching and Theorizing) QSR N6 and QSR NVivo

– ATLAS.ti

• Coding data

• Finding Patterns

• Labeling Themes

• Developing Category Systems

• Looking for emergent patterns in the data